apa yang terjadi ?

[Kelipkelip]

208. The Present Subjunctive occurs

(1) In certain traditional phrases, where it expresses a wish or hope; as,
God bless you!
God save the King!
Heaven help us!

(2) In formal English, in a noun clause dependent on a verb expressing desire, intention, resolution, etc. ; as,
I move that Mr. Gupta be appointed Chairman.
It is suggested that a ring road be built to relieve the congestion.
We recommended that the subscription be increased to ten ringgits.

209. The Past Subjunctive is used

(1) After the verb wish, to indicate a situation which is unreal or contrary to fact; as,
I wish I knew his name. (=I'm sorrry I don't know his name.)
I wish I were a millionaire.
She wishes the car belonged to you.

(2) After if, to express improbability or unreality in the present; as,
If I were you I should not do that (but I am not you, and never can be).
If we started now we would be in time (but we cannot start now).

(3) After as if / as though, to indicate unreality or improbability; as,
He orders me about as if I were his wife (but I am not).
He walks as though he were drunk (but he is not).

(4) After it is time + subject, to imply that it is late; as,
It is time we started.

(5) After would rather + subject, to indicate preference; as,
I would rather you went by air (= I should prefer you go by air).
They would rather you paid them by cheque.


CHAPTER 24

TENSES : INTRODUCTION

210. Read the following sentences :
1. I write this letter to please you.
2. I wrote the letter in his very presence.
3. I shall write another letter tomorrow.

In sentence 1, the Verb writes refers to present time.
In sentence 2, the Verb wrote refers to past time.
In sentence 3, the Verb shall write refers to future time.
Thus a Verb may refer
(1) to present time, (2) to past time, or (3) to future time.

211. A Verb that refers to present time is said to be the Present Tense; as,
I write.
I love.
(The word tense comes from the Latin tempus, time.)

A Verb that refers to past time is said to be the Past Tense; as,
I wrote.
I loved.

A Verb that refers to future time is said to be the Future Tense; as,
I shall write.
I shall love.

212. Thus there are three main Tenses :
The Present, the Past, the Future.
The Tense of a Verb shows the time of an action or event.
Note: Sometimes a past tense may refer to present time, and a present tense may express future time; as,
I wish I knew the answer. (=I'm sorry I don't know the answer. Past tense - Present time)
Let's wait till he comes. (Present tense - future tense)

To be continued.

[Kelipkelip]

213. Below we give the chief Tenses (Active Voice, Indicative Mood) of the verb to love.

PRESENT TENSE
[][Singular Person][Plural Number]
[1st. Person][We love]
[2nd. Person][You love][You love]
[3rd. Person][He loves][They love]

PAST TENSE
[][Singular Number][Plural Number]
[1st. Person][We loved]
[2nd. Person][You loved][You loved]
[3rd. Person][He loved][They loved]

FUTURE TENSE
[][Singular Number][Plural Number]
[1st. Person][We shall / will love]
[2nd. Person][You will love][You will love]
[3rd. Person][He will love][They will love]

To be continued

[Kelipkelip]

214. Read these sentences :
1. I love. (Simple Present)
2. I am loving. (Present Continous)
3. I have loved. (Present Perfect)
4. I have been loving. (Present Perfect Continous)
The verbs in all these sentences refers to the present time, and are therefore said to be in the present tense.
In sentence 1, however, the Verb shows that the action is mentioned simply, without anything being said about the completeness or incompleteness of the action.
In sentence 2, the Verb shows that the action is mentioned as incomplete or continous, that is, as still going on.
In sentence 3, the Verb shows that the action is mentioned as finished, complete or perferct, at the time of speaking.
The tense of the Verb in sentence 4 is said to be Present Perfect Continous, because the verb shows that the action is going on continously, and not completed at this present moment.
Thus we see that the Tense of a verb shows not only the time of the action or event, but also the state of an action referred to.

215. Just as the Present Tense has four forms, the Past Tense also has the following four forms :
1. I loved. (Simple Past)
2. I was loving. (Past Continous)
3. I had loved. (Past Perfect)
4. I had been loving. (Past Perfect Continous)

Similarly the Future Tense has the following four forms :
1. I shall / will love. (Simple Future)
2. I shall / will be loving. (Future Continous)
3. I shall / will have loved. (Future Perfect)
4. I shall have been loving. (Future Perfect Continous)
We may now define Tense as that form of a Verb which shows the time and the state of an action or event.

To be continued

[Kelipkelip]

216. A verb agrees with its subject in number and person. Study the verb forms of various tenses :

[Simple Present Tense][Present Continous Tense]

[You speak][You are speaking]
[He speaks][He is speaking]
[We speak][We are speaking]
[They speak][They are speaking]

[Present Perfect Tense][Present Perfect Continous Tense]

[You have spoken][You have been speaking]
[He has spoken][He has been speaking]
[We have spoken][We have been speaking]
[They have spoken][They have been speaking]

[Simple Past Tense][past Continous Tense

[You spoke][You were speaking]
[He spoke][He was speaking]
[We spoke][We were speaking]
[They spoke][They were speaking]

Past Perfect Tense][Past Perfect Continous Tense]

[You had spoken][You had been speaking]
[He had spoken][He had been speaking
We had spoken. We had been speaking]

To be continued.

[Kelipkelip]

CHAPTER 25

THE USES OF THE PRESENT AND PAST TENSE

PRESENT TENSE

Simple Present Tense

217. The Simple Present is used :
1) To express a habitual action; as,
He drinks tea every morning.
I get up everyday at five o'clock.
My watch keeps good time.

2) To express general truths; as,
The sun rises in the east.
Honey is sweet.
Fortune favours the brave.

3) In exclamatory sentences beginning with here and there to express what is actually taking place in the present; as,
Here comes the bus!
There she goes.

4) In vivid narrative, as substitute for the Simple Past; as
Sohrab now rushes forward and deals a heavy blow to Rustam.
Immediately the Sultan hurries to his capital.

5) To express a future event that is part of a fixed timetable or fixed programme :
The next flight is at 7.00 tomorrow morning.
The match starts at 9 o'clock.
The train leaves at 5.20.
When does the coffee house reopen?

218. Note also the other uses of the Simple Present Tense.
1) It is used to introduce quotations; as,
Keats says, 'A thing of beauty is a joy for ever'.

2) It is used, instead of the Simple Future Tense, in clauses of time and of condition; as,
I shall wait till you finish your lunch.
If it rains we shall get wet.

3) As in broadcast commentaries on sporting events, the Simple Present is used, instead of the Present Continous, to describe activities in progress where there is stress on the succession of happening rather than on the duration.

4) The Simple Presnt is used, instead of the Present Continous, with the type of verbs referred to in 221 as below.

PRESENT CONTINOUS TENSE

219. The Present Continous is used
1) For an action going on at the time of speaking; as,
She is singing (now).
The boys are playing hockey.

2) For a temporary action which may not be actually happening at the time of speaking; as,
I am reading 'David Copperfield' (but I am not reading at this moment).

3) For an action that has already been arranged to take place in the near future; as,
I am going to the cinema tonight.
My uncle is arriving tomorrow.

220. It has been pointed out before that the Simple Present is used for a habitual action. However, when the referrence is to a particularly obsinate habit - something which persists, for example, in spike of advice or warning - we use the Present Continous with an adverb like always, continually, constantly.
My dog is very silly; he is always running out into the road.

221. The following verbs, on account of their meaning, are not normally used in the continous form :
1) Verb of perception, e.g., see, hear, smell, notice, recognize.
2) Verbs of appearing, e.g., appear, look, seem.
3) Verbs of emotion, e.g., want, wish, desire, feel, like, love, hate, hope, refuse, prefer.
4) Verbs of thinking e.g., think, suppose, believe, agree, consider, trust, remember, forget, know, understand, imagine, mean, mind.
5) have (= possess), own, possess, belong to, contain, consist of, be (except when used in the passive).
e.g.
[Wrong][Right]
[These grapes are tasting sour.][These grapes taste sour.]
I am thinking you are wrong.][I think you are wrong.]
[She is seeming sad][She seems sad.]
[He is having a cellular phone.][He has a cellular phone.]

However, the verbs listed above can be used in the continous tenses with a change of meaning :
She is tasting the soup to see if it needs more salt. (taste = test the flavour of)
I am thinking of going to Malaysia. (think of = consider the idea of)
They are having lunch. (have = eat)

To be continued.

[Kelipkelip]

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE

222. The Present Perfect is used :
1) To indicate completed activities in the immediate past (with just) as;
He has just gone out.
It has just struck ten.

2) To express past actions whose time is not given and not definite; as
Have you read 'Gulliver's Travels'?
I have never known him to be angry.
Mr. Hari has been to Japan.

3) To describe past events when we think more of their effect in the present than of the action itself; as,
Gopi has eaten all the biscuits (i.e there aren't any left for you).
I have cut my finger (and it is bleeding now).
I have finished my work (= now I am free).

4) To denote an action beginning at some time in the past and continuing up to the present moment (often with since- and for-phrases); as,
I have known him for a long time.
He has been ill since last week.
We have lived here for ten years.
We haven't seen Padma for several months.

223. The following adverbs or adverb phrases can also be used with the Present Perfect (apart from those mentioned above); never, ever (in questions only), so far, till now, yet (in negatives and questions), already, today, this week, this month, etc.

Note : The Present Perfect is never used with adverbs of past time. We should not say, for example, 'He has gone to Kolkata yesterday'. In such cases the Simple Past should be used ('He went to Kolkata yesterday').

To be continued.

[Kelipkelip]

PRESENT PERFECT CONTINOUS TENSE

224. The Present Perfect Continous is used for an action which began at some time in the past and is still continuing; as,
He has been sleeping for five hours (and is still sleeping).
They have been building the bridge for several months.
They have been playing since four o'clock.

225. This tense is also sometimes used for an action already finished. In such cases the continuity of the activity is emphasized as an explanation of something.
'Why are your clothes so wet?' - 'I have been watering the garden.

To be continued.

[Kelipkelip]

PAST TENSES

SIMPLE PAST TENSE

226. The Simple Past is used to indicate an action completed in the past. It often occurs with adverbs or adverb phrases of past time.
The steamer sailed yesterday.
I received his letter a week ago.
She left school last year.

227. Sometimes this tense is used without an adverb of time. In such cases the time may be either implied or indicated by the context.
I learnt Hindi in Nagpur.
I didn't sleep well (i.e., last night).
Babar defeated Kana Sanga at Kanwaha.

228. The Simple Past is also used for past habits; as,
He studied many hours every day.
She always carried an umbrella.

PAST CONTINUOUS TENSE

229. The Past Continuous is used to denote an action going on at some time in the past. The time of the action may or may not be indicated.
We were listening to the radio all evening.
It was getting darker.
The light went out while I was reading.
When I saw him, he was playing chess.

As in the last two examples above, the Past Continuous and Simple Past were used together when a new action happened in the middle of a longer action. The Simple Past is used for the new action.

230. This tense is also used with always, continually, etc. for persistent habits in the past.
He was always grumbling.

PAST PERFECT TENSE

231. The Past Perfect describes an action completed before a certain moment in the past; as,
I met him in New Delhi in 1996. I had seen him last five years before.

232. If two action happened in the past, it may be necessary to show which action happened earlier than the other. The Past Perfect is mainly used in such situations. The Simple Past is used in one clause nad the Past Perfect in the other; as,
When I reached the station the train had started (so I couldn't get into the train).
I had done my exercise when Hari came to see me.
I had written the letter before he arrived.

PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE

233. The Past Perfect Continuous is used for an action that began before a certain point in the past and continued up to that time; as,
At that time he had been writing a novel for two months.
When Mr. Mukerji came to the school in 1965, Mr. Anand had been teaching there for five years.

To be continued.

[Kelipkelip]

CHAPTER 26

THE FUTURE

234. There are several ways of talking about the future in English: the Simple Future Tense, the going to form, the Simple Present Tense, etc.

SIMPLE FUTURE TENSE

235. The Simple Future Tense is used to talk about things which we cannot control. It expresses the future as fact.
I shall be twenty next Saturday.
It will be Diwali in a week.
We will know our exam results in May.

236. We use this tense to talk about what we think or believe will happen in the future.
I think Pakistan will win the match.
I'm sure Helen will get a first class.

As in the above sentences, we often use this tense with I think, and I'm sure. We also say I expect ____, I beleive ____, Probably ____, etc.

237. We can use this tense when we decide to do something at the time of speaking.
It is raining. I will take an umbrella.
"Mr. Sinha is very busy at the moment." - "All right. I'll wait."

Going to

238. We use the going to form (be going to + base of the verb) when we have decided to do something before talking about it.
"Have you decided what to do?" - "Yes. I am going to resign the job."
"Why do you want to sell your motorbike?" - "I'm going to buy a car."

Remember that if the action is already decided upon and preparations have been made, we should use the going to form, not the Simple Future Tense. The Simple Future Tense is used for an instant decision.

239. We also use the going to form to talk about what seems likely or certain, when there is something in the present which tells us about the future.
It is going to rain; look at those clouds.
The boat is full of water. It is going to sink.
She is going to have a baby.

240. The going to form may also express an action which is on the point of happening.
Let's get into the train. It's going to leave.
Look! The cracker is going to explode.

Be about to

241. Be about to + base form can also be used for the immediate future.
Let's get into the train. It's about to leave.
Don't go out now. We are about to have lunch.

To be continued

[Kelipkelip]

SIMPLE PRESENT TENSE

242. The Simple Present Tense is used for official programmes and timetables.
The college opens on 23rd June.
The film starts at 6.30 and finishes at 9.00.
When does the next train leave for Chennai?

243. The Simple Present is often used for future time in clauses with if, unless, when, while, as (=while) before, after, until, by the time and as soon as. The Simple Future Tense is not used in such cases.
I won't go out if it rains. (not : will rain)
Can I have some milk before I go to bed?
Please ring me up as soon as he comes.

PRESENT CONTINOUS TENSE

244. We use the Present Continous Tense when we talk about something that we have planned to do in the future.
I am going to Shimla tomorrow.
We are eating out tonight.
Mr. Abdul Rehman is arriving this evening.

You are advised to use the Present Continous (not the Simple Present) for personal arangements.

FUTURE CONTINOUS TENSE

245. We use the Future Continous Tense to talk about actions which will be in progress at a time in the future.
I suppose it will be raining when we start.
This time tomorrow I will be sitting on the beach in Singapore.
"Can I see you at 5 o'clock?" - "Please don't come then. I will be watching the tennis match on TV."

246. We also use this tense to talk about actions in the future which are already planned or which are expected to happen in the normal course of things.
I will be staying here till Sunday.
He will be meeting us next week.
The postman will be coming soon.

To be continued.

[Kelipkelip]

BE TO

247. We use be to + base form to talk about official plans and arrangements.
The Prime Minister is to visit America next month.
The conference is to discuss "Nuclear Tests".

Be to is used in a formal style, often in news reports. Be is usually left out in headlines, e.g.
"Prime Miniter to visit America".

FUTURE PERFECT TENSE

248. The Future Perfect Tense is used to talk about actions that will be completed by a certain future time.
I shall have written my exercise by then.
He will have left before you go to see him.
By the end of this month I will have worked here for five years.

FUTURE PERFECT CONTINOUS TENSE

249. The Future Perfect Continous tense is used for actions which will be in progress over a period of time that will end in the future.
By next March we shall have been living here for four years.
I'll have been teaching for twenty years next July.

This tense is not very common.

To be continued.

[Kelipkelip]

CHAPTER 27

THE VERB : PERSON AND NUMBER

250. The Verb, like the Personal Pronouns, has three Persons - the First, the Second and the Third. Thus we say :
1. I speak.
2. You speak. (Old English : Thou speakest.)
3. He speaks.

This is because of the difference in Persons of the subject, as all the three are subjects of the singular number.
In sentence 1, the Subject is the First Person, therefore the Verb is aslo of the First Person.
In sentence 2, the Subject is of Second Person, therefore the Verb is also of the Second Person.
In sentence 3, the Subject is of the Third Person, therefore the Verb is also of the Third person.
We thus see that the Verb takes the same Person as its Subject; or, that the Verb agrees with its Subject inPerson.

251. The Verb, like the Noun and the Pronoun, has two Numbers : the Singular and the Plural. Thus we say -
1 He speaks.
2. They speak.

This is because of the difference in Number of the subjects (as both the Subjects are of the third person).
In sentence 1, the Subject is Singular, therefore the Verb is Singular.
In sentence 2, the Subject is Plural, therefore the Verb is Plural.
We thus see that the Verb takes the same Number as its Subject; or, that the Verb agrees with its Subject in Number.

252. But we have already seen that the Verb also agrees with its Subject inPerson; hence we have the important rule -
The Verb must agree with its Subject in Number and Person; that is, the Verb must be of the same Number and Person as its Subject. Thus, if the Subject is of the Singular Number, First Person, the Verb must be of the Singular Number, First Person; as
I am here.
I was there.
I have a bat.
I play cricket.
If the Subject is of the Plural Number, Third Person, the Verb must be of the Plural Number, Third Person; as
They are here.
They were there.
They have bats.
They play cricket.
Note- In some languages the form of the Verb changes with the Number and Person of the Subject. In modern English verbs have lost all their inflections for number and person, except in the third person of the singular number. Thus we have -
[We speak.]
[You speak.][You speak. (You is both singular and plural in current English.)]
[He speaks.][They speak.]

The only exception is the verb to be. We say -
[I am.][We are.]
[You are.][You are.]
[He is.][They are.]

To be continued.

[Kelipkelip]

CHAPTER 28

THE INFINITIVE

253. Read these sentences :
I want to go.
They tried to find fault with us.

The forms to go and to find are "infinities."

The infinitive is the base of a verb, often followed by to.

254. Read the following sentences :
1. To err is human.
2. Birds love to sing.
3. To respect our parents is our duty.
4. He refused to obey the orders.
5. Many men desire to make money quickly.

In sentence 1, the Infinitive, lika a noun, is the Subject of the verb is.
In sentence 2, the Infinitive, like a noun, is the Object of the verb love.
In sentence 3, the Infinitive, like a noun is the Subject of the verb is, but like a verb, it also takes an object.
In sentence 4, the Infinitive, like a noun, is the Object of the verb refused, but, like a verb, it also takes an object.
In sentence 5, the Infinitive, like a noun, is the Object of the verb desire, but like a verb, it also takes an Object and is modified by an Adverb.
It will be seen that the Infinitive is a kind of noun with certain features of the verb, especially that of taking an object (when the verb is Transtive) and adverbial qualifiers. In short, the Infinitive is a Verb-Noun.

255. The word to is frequenctly used with the Infinitive, but is not an essential part or sign of it.
Thus after certain verbs (bids, let, make, *need, dare*, see, hear), we use the Infinitive without to; as,
Bid him go there.
I bade him go.
Let him sit here.
I will not let you go.
Make him stand.
I made him run.
We need not go to-day.
You need not do it.
You dare not do it.
I saw him do it.
I heard him cry.

256. The Infinitive without to is also used after the verbs will, would, shall, should, may, might, can, could and must.
I will pay the bill.
You should work harder.
He can speak five languages.
You must come to the office at nine tomorrow.

The Infinitive without to is also used after had better, had rather, would rather, sooner than, rather than; as,
You had better ask permission.
I had rather play than work.
I would rather die than suffer so.

To be continued.

[Kelipkelip]

USE OF THE INFINITIVE

257. The Infinitive, with or without adjuncts, may be used, like a Noun -
1) As the Subject of a Verb; as,
To find fault is easy.
To err is human.
To reign is worth ambition.

2) As the Object of a transitive Verb; as,
I do not mean to read.
He likes to play cards.

3) As the Complement of a Verb; as,
Her greatest pleasure is to sing.
His custom is to ride daily.

4) As the Object of a Preposition; as,
He had no choice but (= except) to obey.
The speaker is about to begin.

5) As an Objective Complement; as,
I saw him go.
When the infinitive is thus used, like a Noun, it is called the Simple Infinitive.

258. The Infinitive is also used -
1) To qulify a Verb, usually to express purposes; as,
He called to see my brother (= for the purpose of seeing my brother).
We eat to live. (Purpose)
I come to bury Ceaser. (Purpose)
He wept to see the desolation caused by the flood. (Cause)

2) To qualify an Adjective; as,
Chicken are good to eat.
This medicine is pleasent to take.
The boys are anxious to learn.
He is too ill to do any work.

3) To qualify a Noun; as,
This is not the time to play.
You will have cause to repent.
He is a man to be admired.
Here is a house to let.
This house is to let.

4) To qualify a Sentence; as,
To tell the truth, I quite forgot my promise.
He was petrified, so to speak.

When the Infinitive is thus used it is called the Gerundial or Qualifying Infinitive.
It will be seen that in 1 and 2 the Gerundial Infinitive does the work of an Adverb; in 3 it does the work of an Adjective; in 4 it is used absolutely.

259. The Infinitive may be active or passive. When active it may have a present and a perfect form, and may merely name the act, or it may represent progressive or continued actio.

ACTIVE

[Present : to love][Perfect : to have loved]
[Present Continous : to be loving]
[Perfect Continous : to have been loving.]

When passive the Infinitive has a present and a perfect form

PASSIVE

[Present : to be loved.]
[Perfect : to have been loved.]

To be continued.

[Kelipkelip]

CHAPTER 29

THE PARTICIPLE

260. Read this sentence
Hearing the noise, the boy woke up.

The word hearing qualifies the noun boy as an Adjective does.
It is from the Verb hear, and governs an object.
The word hearing, thefore, pertakes of the nature of both a Verb and an Adjective, and is called a Participle. It may be called a Verbal Adjective.
Def. : A participle is that form of the Verb which pertakes of the nature both of a Verb and of an Adjective.
[Or] A participle is a word which is partly a Verb and partly an Adjective.
[Note - The phrase 'Hearing the noise', which is introduced by a Parciple, is called a Participle Phrase. according to its use here, it is an Adjectice Phrase.]

261. Study the following examples of Participles :
1. We met a girl carrying a basket of flowers.
2. Loudly knocking at the gate, he demanded admission.
3. The child, thinking all was safe, attempted to cross the road.
4. He rushed into the field, and formost fighting fell.
The above are all examples of what is usually called the Present Participle, which ends in -ing and represents an action as going on or incomplete or imperfect.
If the verb from which it comes is Transitive, it takes an object, as in sentence 1.
Notice also that in sentence 2, the Participle is modified by an adverb.

262. Besides the Present Participle, we can form from each verb another Participle called its Past Participle, which represents a completed action or state of the thing spoken of.
The following are examples of Past Participles :
Blinded by a dust storm, they fell into disorder.
Deceived by his friends, he lost all hope.
Time misspent is time lost.
Driven by hunger, he stole a piece of bread.
We saw a few trees laden with fruit.
It will be noticed that the Past Participle usually ends in -ed, d, t, en and n.
Besides these two simple participles, the Present and the Past, we have what is called a Perfect Participle that represents an action as completed at some past time; as,
Having rested, we continued our journey.

To be continued