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ENGLISH GRAMMAR & COMPOSITION

37. The following nouns look plural but are in fact singular
(1) Names of subjects
mathematics, physics, electronics, etc

(2) The word news

(3) Names of some common diseases
measles, mumps, rickets

(4) Names of some games
billiards, draughts

Mathematics is his favourite study.
No news is good news.
India won by an innings and three runs.
Measles is infectious.
Billiards is my favourite game.
'Means' is used either as singular or plural. But when it has the meaning of 'wealth' it is always plural; as,

He succeeded by this means (or, by these means) in passing the examination.
His means are small, but he has incurred no debt.

To be continued

[Kelipkelip]

ENGLISH GRAMMAR & COMPOSITION

38. Certain Collective Nouns, though singular in form, are always used as plurals; as,
Poultry, cattle, vermin, people, gentry.

These poultry are mine.
Whose are these cattle?
Vermin destroy our property and carry disease.
There are few gentry in this town.

Note:- As a Common Noun 'people' means a 'nation' and used in both singular and plural; as,
The Japenese are a hard-working people.
There are many different peoples in Europe.

39. A Compound Noun generally forms its plural by adding -s to the principal word; as,
[Singular][Plural]
[Commander-in-chief][commanders-in-chief]
[Coat-of-mail][coats-of-mail]
[Son-in-law][sons-in-law]
[Daughter-in-law][daughters-in-law]
[Step-son][step-sons]
[Step-daughter][step-daughters]
[Maid-servant][maid-servants]
[Man-servant][men-servants] : this is special
[Passer-by][passers-by]
[Looker-on][lookers-on]
[man-or-war][men-or-war] : special

We say handfuls, because handfull is regarded as one word.
Note that the Proper Nouns Brahman and Mussulman are not compounds of man; thefore their plurals are Brahmans and Mussulmans.

To be continued

[Kelipkelip]

ENGLISH GRAMMAR & COMPOSITION

40. Many nouns taken from foreign languages keep their original plural form; as,
From Latin:-
[Erratum][errata]
[Formula][formulae (or formulas)]
[Index][indices]
[Memorandum][memoranda]
[Radius][radii]
[Terminus][termini (or terminuses)]

From Greek:-
[Axis][axes]
[Parenthesis][parentheses]
[Crisis][crises]
[Hypothesis][hypotheses]
[Basis][bases]
[Phenomenon][phenomena]
[Analysis][analyses]
[Criterion][criteria]

From Italian:-
[Bandit][banditi (or bandits)]

From French:-
[Madame (madam)][mesdames]
[Monsieur][messieurs]

From Hebrew:-
[Cherub][cherubim (or cherubs)]
[Seraph][seraphim (or seraphs)]

41. Some nouns have two forms for the plural, each with a somewhat different meaning.
[Singular][Plural]
[Brother][brothers, sons of the same parent.]
[Brother][brethren, members of a society or a community]
[Cloth][cloths, kinds or pieces of clotch]
[Cloth][clothes, garments]
[Die][dies, stamps for coining]
[Die][dice, small cubes used in games.]
[Index][indexes, tables of contents to books]
[Index][indices, signs used in algebra]
[Penny][pennies, numbers of coins]
[Penny][pence, amount in value]

To be continued

[Kelipkelip]

ENGLISH GRAMMAR & COMPOSITION

42. Some nouns have two meanings in the singular but only one in the plural.
[Singular][Plural]
[Light : 1. radiance][Lights : lamps]
[2. a lamp][/td]
[People : 1. nation][Peoples : nations]
[2. men or women][/td]
[Powder : 1. dust][Powders : doses of medicine]
[2. a dose of medicine in fine grains like dust][/td]
[Practice : 1. habit][Practices : habits]
[2. exercise of a profession][/td]

43. Some nouns have one meaning in the singular, two in the plural.
[Singular][Plural]
[Colours : 1. hues]
[td][2. the flag of a regiment]
[Custom : habit][Customs : 1. habits]
[td][2. duties levied on imports]
[Effects : result][Effects : 1. results]
[td][2. property]
[Manner : method][Manners : 1. methods]
[td][2. correct behaviour]
[Moral : a moral lesson][Morals : 1. morals lessons]
[td][2. 2. conduct]
[Number : a quantity][Numbers : 1. quantities]
[td][2. verses]
[Pain : suffering][Pains : 1. sufferings]
[td][2. care, exertion]
[premise : proposition][Premises : 1. propositions]
[td][2. buildings]
[Quarter : fourth part][Quarters : 1. fourth parts]
[td][2. lodgings]
[Spectacle : a sight][Spectacles : 1. sights]
[td][2. eye-glasses]
[Letter : 1. letter of the alphabet][Letters : 1. letters of the alphabets]
[2. epistle][2. epistles]
[td][3. literature]
[Ground : 1. earth][Grounds : 1. enclosed land attached to house]
[2. reason][2. reasons]
[td][3. dregs]

To be continued

[Kelipkelip]

ENGLISH GRAMMAR & COMPOSITION

44. Some nouns have different meanings in the singular and the plural.
[[color+red]Singular[/color][Plural]
[Advice : counsel][Advices : informations]
[Air : atmosphere][Airs : affected manners]
[Good : benefit, well-being][Goods : merchandise]
[Compass : extent, range][Compasses : an instrument for drawing circles]
[Respect : regards][Respects : compliments]
[Physic : medicine][Physics : natural science]
[Iron : a kind of metal][Irons : fetters]
[Force : strength][Forces : troops]

45. Letters, figures and other symbols are made by adding an apostrophe and s; as,
There are more e's than a's in this page.
Dot your i's and cross your t's
Add two 5's and four 2's

46. It is usual to say -
The Miss Smiths. (Singular, Miss Smith.)

47. Abstract Nouns have no plural. They are uncountables.
Hope, charity, love, kindness

When such words appear in the plural, they are used as countables; as
Provocations = instances or cases of provocation.
Kindness = act of kindness

Names of substances are also uncountables and are not therefore used in the plural.
Vopper, iron, tin, wood.

When such words are used in the plural, they becone countables with changed in the plural, they become countables with changed meanings ; as
Coppers = copper coins, irons = letters
tins = cans made of tin; woods = forest

To be continued

[Kelipkelip]

ENGLISH GRAMMAR & COMPOSITION

CHAPTER 8

THE NOUN : CASE

48. Examine these sentences :-
1. John threw a stone.
2. The horse kicked the boy.

In sentence 1, the noun John is the Subject. It is the answer to the question, "Who threw a stone?"
The group of words threw a stone is the Predicate.
The Predicate contains the verb threw.
What did John throw? - A stone. Stone is the object John threw. The noun stone is therefore called the Object

In sentence 2, the noun horse is the Subject. It is the answer to the question, "Who kicked the boy?'
The noun boy is the Object. It is the answer to the question, "Whom did the horse kick?'.

49. When a noun (or pronoun) is used as the Subject of a verb, it is said to be in the Nominate Case.
When a noun (or pronoun) is used as the Object of a verb, it is said to be in the Objective (or Accusative) Case.

Note - To find the Nominative, put Who? or What? before the verb.
To find the Accusative, put Whom? or What? before the verb and its subject.

To be continued

[Kelipkelip]

ENGLISH GRAMMAR & COMPOSITION

50. A noun which comes after a preposition is also said to be in the Accusative Case as,
The book is on the desk.

The noun desk is in the Accusative Case, governed by the preposition in.

51. Read the following sentences:
1. Hari broke the window. (Object)
2. The window was broken. (Subject)

It will be seen that Nouns in English have the same form for the Nominative and the Accusative.
The Nominative generally comes before the verb, and the Accusative after the verb. Hence they are distinguished by the order of words, or by the sence.

52. Compare:-
1. Rama gave a ball.
2. Rama gave Hari a ball.

In each of these sentences the noun ball is the Object of gave.
In the second sentence we are told that Hari was the person to whom Rama gave a ball.
The noun Hari is called the Indirect Object of the verb gave.
The noun ball, the ordinary Object, is called the Direct Object.
It will be noticed that the position of the Indirect Object is immediately after the verb and before the Direct Object.

Note :
Rama gave Hari a ball = Rama gave a ball to Hari.
Will you do me a favour? = Wll you do a favour to me?
I bought Rama a ball = I bought a ball for Rama.
Fetch the boy a book = Fetch a book for the boy.
She made Ruth a new dress = She made a new dress for Ruth.
Get me a taxi = Get a taxi for me.

We see that the Indirect Object of a verb denotes the person to whom something is given, or for whom something is done.

53. Examine the sentence:-
This is Rama's umbrella.
Ram's umbrella = the umbrella belonging to Rama.

The form of the noun Rama is changed to Rama's to show ownership or posession. The Noun Rama's is therefore said to be in the Possessive (or Genitive) Case.
The Possessive answers the question, "Whose?'

Whose umbrella? - Rama's.

To be continued

[Kelipkelip]

ENGLISH GRAMMAR & COMPOSITION

54. The Possessive ase does not always denote posession. It is used to denote authorship, origin, kind, etc. as,
Shakesperre's plays = the plays written by Shekespeare.
A mother's love = the love felt by a mother.
The Predident's speech = the speech delivered by the President.
Mr. Aggarwal's house = the house where Mr. Aggarwal lives.
Ashok's school = the school where Ashok goes.
A children's playground = a playground for children
A week's holiday = a holiday which lasts a week.

FORMATION OF THE POSSESSIVE CASE

55. (1) When the noun is Singular, the Possessive Case is formed by adding 's to the noun; as,
The boy's book; the king's crown
Note : The letter s is omitted in a few words where too many hissing sounds would come together; as,
For conscience' sake; for goodness' sake:
For justice' sake
(2) When the noun is Plural, and ends in s, the Possessive Case is formed by adding only an apostrope; as,
Boys' school, girls' school; horses' tails.
(3) When the noun is Plural but does not end in s, the Possessive sign is formed by adding 's as,
Men's club, children's books.

To be continued

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ENGLISH GRAMMAR & COMPOSITION

56. When a noun or a title consists of several words, the Possessive sign is attached only to the last word; as,
The King of Bhutan's visit.
The Prime Minister of Mauritius's speech.

57. When two nouns are in apposition, the possessive sign is put to the latter only; as,
That is Tagore the poet's house.

58. Also when two nouns are closely connected, the possessive is put to the latter; as,
Karim and Salim's bakery.
William and Mary's reign.

59' Each of two or more connected nouns implying separate possession must take the possessive sign; as,
Raja Rao's and R. K. Narayan's novels.
Goldsmith's and Cowper's poems.

To be continued

[Kelipkelip]

ENGLISH GRAMMAR & COMPOSITION

USE OF THE POSSESSIVE CASE

60. The Possessive Case is now used chiefly with the names of living things; as,
The Governor's bodyguard; the lion's name.
So we must say;
The leg of the table ( not the table's leg).
The cover of the book ( not the book's cover ).
The roof of the house ( not the house's roof ).

61. But the Possessive is used with the names of personified objects; as,
India's heroes; Nature's law; Fortune's favourite; at duty's call; at death's door

To be continued

[Kelipkelip]

ENGLISH GRAMMAR & COMPOSITION

62. The Possessive is also used with nouns denoting time, space or weight; as,
A day's march, a week's holiday, in a year's time , a stone's throw, a foot's length, a pound's weight.

63. The following phrases are also in common use :
At his fingers' ends, for mercy's sake, to his heart's content, at his wit's end; a boat's crew.

64. The Possessive of proper name or of a noun denoting a trade, profession, or relationship may be used to denote a building or place of business ( house, school, college, shop, hospital, theatre, etc ), as;
She has gone to the baker's (= baker's shop)
Tonight I am dining at my uncle's (= uncle's house)
I attended the Town High School but my cousin attends St. Xavier's
He was educated at St. Joseph's.

65. When you are in dhoubt whether to use a noun in the possessive case or with the preposition of, remember that, as a general rule, the possessive case is used to denote possession or ownership. Thus it is better to say 'the defeat of the enemy' than 'the enemy's defeat', even though no dhoubt as to be the meaning would arise.
Sometimes, however, a noun in the possessive case has a different meaning from a noun used with the preposition of; as,
'The Prime Minister's reception in Delhi' means a reception held by the Prime Minister in Delhi.
'The reception of the Prime Minister in Delhi' means the manner in which the people welcome him when he entered Delhi.
The phrase 'the love of a father' may mean either 'a father's love of his child' or 'a child's love of his father'.

To be continued

[Kelipkelip]

ENGLISH GRAMMAR & COMPOSITION

NOUNS IN APPOSITION

66. Read the following sentence :
Rama, our captain, made fifty runs.

We see that Rama and our captain are one and the same person. The noun captain follows the noun Rama simply to explain which Rama is referred to.
When one noun follows another to describe it, the noun which follows is said to be in apposition to the noun which comes before it.
[Apposition means placing near.]
A noun in apposition is in the same case as the noun which it explains.
In the above sentence the noun captain is in apposition to the noun Rama, and is in the Nominative Case (because Rama is in the Nominative Case).

Further examples :
1. Kabir, the great reformer, was a weaver.
2. Yesterday I met your uncle, the doctor.
3. Have you seen Ganguli, the artist's drawing?
In sentence 1, the noun in apposition is in the Nominative Case.
In sentence 2, the noun in apposition is in the Accusative Case. [Why?]
In sentence 3, the noun in apposition is in the Genitive Case. [Why?]

To be continued

[Kelipkelip]

ENGLISH GRAMMAR & COMPOSITION

CHAPTER 9

THE ADJECTIVE

67. Read the following sentences :
1. Sita is a clever girl. (Girl of what kind?)
2. I don't like that boy. (Which boy?)
3. He gave me five mangoes. (How many mangoes?)
4. There is little time for preparation. (How much time?)

In sentence 1, 'clever' shows what kind of girl Sita is: or, in other words, 'clever'describes the girl Sita.
In sentence 2, 'that' points out which boy is meant.
In sentence 3, 'five' shows how many mangoes he gave me.
In sentence 4, 'little' shows how much time there is for preparation.
A word used with a noun to describe or point out, the person, animal, place or thing which the noun names, or tell the number or quantity, is called an Adjective.
So we may define an Adjective as a word used with a noun to add something for its meaning.
[Adjective menas added to]

To be continued

[Kelipkelip]

ENGLISH GRAMMAR & COMPOSITION

68. Look at the following sentences :
1. The lazy boy was punished.
2. The boy is lazy.
In sentence 1, the Adjective lazy is used along with the verb boy as an epithet or attribute. It is, thefore, said to be used Attributively.
In sentence 2, the Adjective lazy is used along with the verb is, and forms part of the Predicate. It is therefore, said to used Predicatively.

Some Adjectives can be used only Predicatively; as,
She is afraid of ghosts.
I am quite well.

To be continued