apa yang terjadi ?

[putera]

[shadow=purple,left,300]
apa dah jadi ?
tapi dah terjadi

harap2 pengendali nya masih menyimpan subject2 yang lalu ....

apa kata kalau kelip2 masuk kan semula

[/shadow]

[Kelipkelip]

ENGLISH GRAMMAR & COMPOSITION

CHAPTER 1

THE SENTENCE

1.When we speak or write we use words. We generally use these words in groups; as

Little Jack Horner sat in a corner.

A group of words like this, which makes complete sense, is called a Sentence.

Kinds of Sentences

2.Sentences are of four kinds:-
(1) Those which make statements or assertions; as

Humpty Dumpty sat on a wall.

(2) Those which ask questions; as

Where do you live?

(3) Those which express commands, request, or entreaties; as

Be quite.
Have mercy upon us.

(4) Those which express strong feelings; as

How cold the night is!
What a shame!

A sentence that makes a statement or assertion is called a Declarative or Assertive sentence.
A sentence that asks a question is called an Interrogative sentence.
A sentence that expresses a command or an entreaty is called an Imperative sentence.
A sentence that expresses strong feeling is called an Exclamatory sentence.

To be continued

[Kelipkelip]

ENGLISH GRAMMAR & COMPOSITION

CHAPTER 2

SUBJECT AND PREDICATE

3.When we make a sentence -
(1) We name some person or thing; and
(2) Say something about that person or thing.

In other words, we must have a subject to speak about and we must say or predicate something about that subject.
Hence every sentence has two parts -

(1) The part which names the person or thing we are speaking about. This is called the Subject of the sentence.
(2) The part which tells something about the Subject. This is called the Predicate of the sentence.

4. The Subject of a sentence usually comes first, but occasionally it is put after the Predicate; as

Here comes the bus.
Sweet are the uses or adversity.

5. In Imperative sentences the Subject is left out; as

Sit down. [Here the Subject You is understood].
Thank him. [Here too the Subject You is understood.]

To be continued

[Kelipkelip]

ENGLISH GRAMMAR & COMPOSITION[/color]

CHAPTER 3

THE PHRASE AND THE CLAUSE

6. Examine the group of words "in a corner'. It makes sense, but not complete sense. Such a group of words, which makes sense, but not complete sense, is called a Phrase.
In the following sentences, the groups of words in italics are Phrase :-

The sun rises in the east.
Humpty Dumpty sat on a wall.
There came a giant to my door.
It was a sunset of great beauty.
The tops of the mountains were covered with snow.
Show me how to do it.

7. Examine the groups of words in italics in the following sentences :-

He has a chain of gold.
He has a chain which is made of gold.

We recognize the first group of words as a Phrase.
The second group of words, unlike the Phrase of gold, contains a Subject (which) and a Predicate (is made of gold).

Such a group of words which forms part of a sentence, and contains a Subject and a Predicate, is called a Clause.

In the following sentences, the groups of words in italics are Clauses :-

People who pay their debts are trusted.
We cannot start while it is raining.
I think that you have made a mistake.

To be continued

[Kelipkelip]

ENGLISH GRAMMAR & COMPOSITION

CHAPTER 4

PARTS OF SPEECH

8. Words are divided into different kinds of classes, called Parts of Speech, according to their use; that is, according to the work they do in a sentence. The parts of speech are eight in number :-
1. Noun
2. Adjective
3. Pronoun
4. Verb
5. Adverb
6. Preposition
7. Conjunction
8. Interjection

9. A Noun is a word used as the name of a person, place, or thing; as,

Akbar was a great King.
Kolkata is on the Hooghly.
The rose smells sweet.
The sun shines bright.
His courage won him honour.

Note - The word thing includes a)all objects that we can see, hear, taste, touch or smell; and b)something that we can think of, but cannot perceive by the senses.

To be continued

[Kelipkelip]

ENGLISH GRAMMAR & COMPOSITION

10. An Adjective is a word used to add something to the meaning of a noun; as

He is a brave boy.
There are twenty boys in this class.

11. A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun; as,

John is absent, because he is ill.
The books are where you left them.

12. A Verb is a word used to express an action or state; as,

The girl wrote a letter to her cousin.
Kolkata is a big city.
Iron and copper are useful metals.

13. An Adverb is a word used to add something to the meaning of a verb, an adjective, or another adverb; as,

He worked the sum quickly.
This flower is very beautiful.
She pronounced the word quite correctly.

14. A Preposition is a word used with a noun or a pronoun to show how the person or thing denoted by the noun or pronoun stands in relation to something else; as,

There is a cow in the garden.
The girl is fond of music.
A fair little girl sat under a tree.

15. A Conjunction is a word used to join words or sentences; as,

Rama and Hari are cousins.
Two and two make four.
I ran fast, but missed the train.

16. An Interjection is a word which expresses some sudden feeling; as,

Hurrah! we have won the game.
Alas! she is dead.

17. Some modern grammars include determiners among the parts of speech. Determiners are words like a, an, the, this, that, those, every, each, any, my, his, one, two etc, which determine or limit the meaning of the nouns that follow. In this program, as in many traditional grammars, all determiners except a, an and the are classed among adjectives.

18. As words are devided into different classes according to the work they do in sentences, it is clear that we cannot say to which part of speech a word belongs unless we see it used in a sentence.

They arrived soon after. (Adverb)
They arrived after us. (Preposition)
They arrived after we had left. (Conjunction)

From the above examples we see that the same word can be used as different parts of speech.

To be continued

[Kelipkelip]

ENGLISH GRAMMAR & COMPOSITION

CHAPTER 5

THE NOUN : KINDS OF NOUNS

19. A Noun is a word used as the name of a person, place or thing.

Note - The word thing is used to mean anything that we can think of.

20. Look at the following sentence ;-

Asoka was a wise king.

The noun Asoka refers to a particular king, but the noun king might be applied to any other king as well as to Asoka. We call Asoka a Proper Noun, and king a Common Noun.

Similarly :-
Sita is a Proper Noun, while girl is a Common Noun.
Hari is a Proper Noun, while boy is a Common Noun.
Kolkata is a Proper Noun, while city is a Common Noun.
India is a Proper Noun, while country is a Common Noun.

The word girl is a Common Noun, because it is a name common to all girls, while Sita is a Proper Noun because it is the name of a particular girl.

Def. - A Common Noun is a name given in common to every person or thing of the same class or kind.
[ommon here means shared by all.]

Def. - A Proper Noun is the name of some particular person or place.
[Proper means own's own. Hence a Proper Name is a person's own name.]

Note 1 - Proper Nouns are always written with a capital letter at the beginning.

Note 2 - Proper Nouns are sometimes used as Common Nouns; as

1. He was the Lukman (= the wisest man) of his age.
2. Kalidas is often called the Shakespearre (= the greatest dramatist) of India.
Common Nouns include what are called Collective Nouns and Abstract Nouns.

21. A Collective Noun is the name of a number (or collection) of persons or things taken together and spoken of as one whole; as,
Crowd, mob, team, flock, herd, army, fleet, jury, family, nation, parliament, committee.
A fleet = a collection of ships or vessels.
An army = a collection of soldiers.
A crowd = a collection of people.

The police dispersed the crowd.
The French army was defeated at Waterloo.
The jury found the prisoner guilty.
A herd of cattle is passing.

To be continued

[Kelipkelip]

ENGLISH GRAMMAR & COMPOSITION

22. An Abstract Noun is usually the name of a quality, action or state considered apart from the object to which it belongs; as,
Quality - Goodness, kindness, whiteness, darkness, hardness, brightness, honesty, wisdom, bravery.
Action - Laughter, theft, movement, judgement, hatred.
State - Childhood, boyhood, youth, slavery, sleep, sickness, death, poverty.

The names of Arts and Science (eg. grammar, music, chemistry, etc.) are also Abstracts Nouns.
[We can speak of a brave soldier, a strong man, a beautiful flower. But we can also think of these qualities apart from any particular person or thing, and speak of bravery, strength, beauty by themselves. So also we can speak of what persons do or feel apart from the persons themselves and give it a name. The word abstract mean drawn off.]

23. Abstract Nouns are formed _
(1) From Adjectives; as,
Kindness from kind; honesty from honest.
[Most abstract nouns are formed thus.]

(2) From Verbs; as,
Obedience from obey; growth from grow.

(3) From Common Nouns; as,
Childhood from child; slavery from slave.

24. Another classification of nouns is whether they are "countable" or "uncountable".
Countable nouns (or countables) are the names of objects, people, etc. that we can count, eg. book, pen, apple, boy, sister, doctor, horse.
Uncountable nouns (or uncountables) are the names of things which we cannot count, eg. milk, oil, sugar, gold, honesty. They mainly denote substances and abstracts things.
Countable nouns have plural forms while uncountable nouns do not. For example, we say "books" but we cannot say "milks".

To be continued

[Kelipkelip]

ENGLISH GRAMMAR & COMPOSITION

CHAPTER 6

THE NOUN : GENDER

25. You know that living beings are of either the male or the female sex. Now compare the words in the following pairs :-
[Boy][girl]
[Lion][lioness]
[Hero][heroine]
[thingy-sparrow][hen-sparrow]

What do you notice?
The first word of each pair is the name of a male.
The second word of each pair is the name of a female.
A noun that denotes a male is said to be of the Masculine Gender. [Gender comes from Latin genus, kind or sort.]
A noun that denotes a female is said to be of the Feminine Gender.

26. A noun that denote either a male or a female is said to be of the Common Gender,; as,
Parent, child, friend, pupil, servant, thief, enemy, cousin, person, orphan, student, baby, monarch, neighbour, infant.

27. A noun that denotes a thing that is neither male or female (ie. thing without life is said to be of the Neuter Gender; as
Book, pen, room, tree.
[Neuter means neither, that is, neither male nor female]

It will be thus seen that in Modern English the Gender of a noun is entirely a matter of sex or the absence of sex. It has nothing to do with the form of a noun, which determines its gender in many other languages. eg. in Urdhu were bagiche is masculine and lakri is feminine.

28. Objects without life are often personified, that is, spoken of as if they were living beings. We then regard them as males or females.
The Masculine Gender is often applied to objects remarkable for strength and violence; as'
The sun, summer, winter, time, death.

The sun sheds his beams on rich and poor alike.

The Feminine Gender is sometimes applied to objects remarkable for beauty, gentleness, and gracefulness; as,
The moon, the earth, spring, autumn, nature, liberty, justice, mercy, peace, hope, charity.

The moon has hidden her face behind a cloud.
Spring has spread her mantle of green over the earth.
Peace hath her victories no less renowned than war.

This use is most common in poetry but certain nouns are personified in prose too. A ship is often spoken of as she; as,

The ship lost all her boats in the storm.

To be continued

[Kelipkelip]

ENGLISH GRAMMAR & COMPOSITION

WAYS OF FORMING THE FEMININE OF NOUNS

29. There are three ways of forming the Feminine of Nouns :-
(1) By using an entirely different word; as
[Masculine][Feminine]
[Bachelor][maid, spinnster]
[Boy][girl]
[Brother][sister]
[Buck][doe]
[Bull (or ox)][cow]
[Bullock][heifer]
[thingy][hen]
[Colt][filly]
[Dog][pregnant dog]
[Drake][duck]
[Drone][bee]
[Earl][countess]
[Father][mother]
[Gander][goose]
[Gentleman][lady]
[Hart][roe]
[Horse][mare]
[Husband][wife]
[King][queen]
[Lord][lady]
[Man][woman]
[Monk (or friar)][nun]
[Nephew][niece]
[Papa][mama]
[Ram][ewe]
[Sir][madam]
[Son][daughter]
[Stag][hind]
[Uncle][aunt]
[Wizard][witch]

To be continued

[Kelipkelip]

ENGLISH GRAMMAR & COMPOSITION

(2) By adding a syllable ( -ess, -ine, -trix, -a, etc.) as
[Masculine[Feminine]
[Author][authoress]
[Baron][baroness]
[Count][countess]
[Giant][giantess]
[Heir][heiress]
[Host][hostess]
[Jew][jewess]
[Lion][lioness]
[Manager][manageress]
[Mayor][mayoress]
[Patron][patroness]
[Peer][peeress]
[Poet][poetess]
[Priest][priestess]
[Shepherd][sherherdess]
[Steward][stewardess]
[Viscount][viscountess]

To be continued

[Kelipkelip]

ENGLISH GRAMMAR & COMPOSITION

[Note that in the following -ess is added after dropping the vowel of the masculine ending]
[Masculine][Feminine]
[Actor][actress]
[Benefactor][benefactress]
[Conductor][conductress]
[Enchanter][enchantress]
[Founder][foundress]
[Hunter][huntress]
[instructor][instructress]
[Negro][negress]
[Abbot][abbess]
[Duke][duchess]
[Emperor][empress]
[Perceptor][perceptress]
[Prince][princess]
[Songster][songstress]
[Tempter][temptress]
[Seamster][seamstress]
[Tiger][tigress]
[Traitor][traitress]
[Waiter][waitress]
[Master][mistress]
[Nurderer][muderess]
[Sourcerer][sourceress]

Note.- The suffix -ess is the commonest suffix used to form feminine nouns, from the masculine, and is the only one which we now use in forming a new feminine noun.

[Masculine[Feminine]
[Hero][heroine]
[Testator][testatrix]
[Czar][czarina]
[Sultan][sultana]
[Signor][signora]
[Fox][vixen]

(3) By placing a word before or after; as
[Masculine][Feminine]
[Grandfather][grandmother]
[Greatuncle][greataunt]
[Manservant][maidservant]
[Landlord][landlady]
[Milkman][milkwoman]
[Peathingy][peahen]
[Salesman][saleswoman]
[Washerman][washerwoman]

To be continued

[Kelipkelip]

ENGLISH GRAMMAR & COMPOSIITON

CHAPTER 7

THE NOUN : NUMBER

30. Notice the change of form in the second word of each pair :-
[Tree][trees]
[Box][boxes]
[Ox][oxen]
[Man][men]

The first word of each pair denotes one thing, the second word of each pair denotes more than one.
A Noun that denotes one person or thing, is said to be in the Singular Number; as,

Boy, girl, cow, bird, tree, book, pen.

A Noun that denotes more than one person or thing, is said to be in the Plural Number; as,

Boys, girls, cows, birds, tress, books, pens.

Thus there are two Numbers in English - the Singular and the Plural.

To be continued

[Kelipkelip]

ENGLISH GRAMMAR & COMPOSITION

HOW PLURALS ARE FORMED

31. (I) The Plural of nouns is generally formed by adding -s to the singular; as,
[Boy][boys]
[Girl][girls]
[Book][books]
[Pen][pens]
[Desk][desks]
[Cow][cows]

(ii) But Nouns ending in -s, -sh, -ch(soft), or -x form the plural by adding -es to the singular; as,
[Class][classes]
[Kiss][kisses]
[Dish][dishes]
[Brush][brushes]
[Match][matches]
[Watch][watches]
[Brunch][brunches]
[Tax][taxes]
[Box][boxes]

(iii) Most Nouns ending in -o also form the plural by adding -es to the singular; as,
[Buffalo][buffaloes]
[Mango][mangoes]
[Hero][heroes]
[Potato][potatoes]
[Cargo][cargoes]
[Echo][echoes]
[Negro][negroes]
[Valcano][volcanoes]

(iv) A few nouns ending -o merely add -s; as,
[Dynamo][dynamos]
[Solo][solos]
[Ratio][ratios]
[Canto][cantos]
[Momento][momentos]
[Quarto][quartos]
[Piano][pianos]
[Photo][photos]
[Stereo][stereos]
[Kilo][kilos]
[Logo][logos]
[Commando][commondos]

(v) Nouns ending in -y, preceded by a consonant, from their plural by changing -y into -i and adding -es; as,
[Baby][babies]
[Lady][ladies]
[City][cities]
[Army][armies]
[Story][stories]
[Pony][ponies]

(iv) The following nouns ending in -f or -fe form their plural by changing -f or -fe into v and adding -es; as,
[Thief][thieves]
[Wife][wives]
[Wolf][wolves]
[Life][lives]
[Calf][calves]
[Leaf][leaves]
[Loaf][loaves]
[Knife][knives]
[Shelf][shelves]
[Half][halves]
[Elf][elves]
[Self][selves]
[Sheaf][sheaves]

The nouns dwarf, hoof, scarf, and wharf take either -s or -ves in the plural
[Dwarfs][dwarves]
[Hoofs][hooves]
[Scarfs][scarves]
[Wharfs][aharves]

Other words ending in -f or -fe add -s; as,
[Chief][chiefs]
[Safe][safes]
[Proof][proofs]
[Gulf][gulfs]
[Cliff][cliffs]
[Handkerchief][handkerchiefs]

To be continued

[Kelipkelip]

ENGLISH GRAMMAR & COMPOSITION

32. A few nouns form tjeir plural by changing the inside vowel of the singular; as,
[Man][men]
[Woman][women]
[Foot][feet]
[Tooth][teeth]
[Goose][geese]
[Mouse][mice]
[Louse][lice]

33. There are a few nouns that form their plural by adding -en to the singular; as,
[Ox][oxen]
[Child][children]
The plural of fish is fish or fishes. The form fishes is less usual.

34. Some nouns have the singular and the plural alike; as,
Swine, sheep, deer, cod, trout, salmon, aircraft, spacecraft, series, species.
Pair, dozen, score, gross, hundred, thousand (when used after numeral0.

I bought three dozen oranges.
Some people reach the age of threescore and ten.
The songket cost me five thousand ringgit.

Stone, hundredweight.
He weights above nine stone.
Twenty hundredweight make one ton.

35. Some nouns are used only in the plural.
(1) Names of instruments which have two parts forming a kind of pair; as,
Bellows, scissors, tongs, pincers, soectacles.

(2) Name of certain articles of dress; as,
Trousers, drawers, breeches, jeans, tights, shorts, pyjamas.

(3) Certain other nouns; as,
Annals, thanks, proceeds (of a sale), tidings, environs, nuptical, obsequies, assets, chatels.

36. Some nouns originally singular are now generally used in the plural; as,
Alms, riches, eaves.
Riches do many things.

To be continued