apa yang terjadi ?

[Kelipkelip]

ENGLISH GRAMMAR & COMPOSITION

KINDS OF ADJECTIVES

Adjectives may be devided into the following classes :

69. Adjectives of Quality (or Descriptive Adjectives) show the kind or quality of a person or thing; as,
Kolkata is a large city.
He is an honest man.
The foolish old crow tried to sing.
This is a Grammar of the English* language.

[* Adjectives formed from Proper Nouns (eg. French wines, Turkish tobacco, Indian tea, etc) are sometimes called Proper Adjectives. They are generally classed with Adjectives of Quality].
Adjectives of Quality answer the question : Of what kind?

70. Adjectives of Quality show how much of a thing is meant; as,
I ate some rice.
He showed much patience.
He has little intelligence.
We have had enough excercise.
He has lost all his wealth.
You have no sense.
He did not eat any rice.
Take great care of your health.
He claimed his half share of the booty.
There has not been sufficient rain this year.
The whole sum was expended.

71. Adjectives of Number (or Numeral Adjectives) show how many persons or things are meant, or in what order a person or thing stands; as,
The hand has five fingers.
Few cats like cold water.
There are no pictures in this book.
I have taught you many things.
All men must die.
Here are some ripe mangoes.
Most boys like cricket.
There are several mistakes in your exercise.
Sunday is the first day of the week.

adjectives of Numbers answer the question: How many?

To be continued

[Kelipkelip]

ENGLISH GRAMMAR & COMPOSITION

72. Adjectives of Numbers (or Numeral Adjectives) are of three kinds :
(i)Definite Numeral Adjectives, which denote an exact number; as,
One, two, three etc. These are called Cardinals
First, second, third etc. These are called Ordinals
(A Cardinal denotes how many, and Ordinal the order of things in a series. It will be seen that Ordinals really do the work of Demonstrative Adjectives.
(ii)Indefinite Numeral Adjectives, which do not denote an exact number; as,
Each boy must take his turn.
India expects every man to do his duty.
Every word of it is false.
Either pen will do.
On either side is a narrow lane.
Neither accusation is true.

73. The same Adjective may be classed as of Quantity or Number, according to its use.
Adjectives of Quantity
I ate some rice.
He has lost all his wealth.
You have no sense.
He did not eat any rice.
I have enough sugar.

Adjectives of Number
Some boys are clever.
All men must die.
There are no pictures in this book.
Are there any mango-trees in this garden?
There are not enough sthingys.

To be continued

[Kelipkelip]

ENGLISH GRAMMAR & COMPOSITION

74. Demonstrative Adjectives point out which person or thing is meant; as,
This boy is stronger than Hari.
That boy is industrious.
These mangoes are sour.
Those rascals must be punished.
Yonder fort once belonged to Shivaji.
Don't be in such a hurry.
I hate such things.
Demonstrative Adjectives answer the question : Which?
(It will be noticed that this and that are used with Singular nouns and these and those with Plural nouns.)

75. What, which and whose, when they are used with nouns to ask questions, are called Interrogative Adjectives; as,
What manner of man is he?
Which way shall we go?
Whose book is this?
(It will be seen that what is used in a general sense, and which in a selective sense.)

76. In the following sentences the words own and very are used as Emphasizing Adjectives :
I saw it with my own eyes.
He was beaten at his own game.
Mind your own business.
He is his own master.
That is the very thing we want.
"When all else left my cause. My very adversary took my part".

77. The word what is sometimes used as an Exclamatory Adjectives; as,
What genius!
What folly!
What an idea!
What a blessing!
What a piece of work is man!

To be continued

[Kelipkelip]

ENGLISH GRAMMAR & COMPOSITION

78. As already pointed out, this and that are the only Adjectives which are inflected or changed in form to show number
This girl sings.
These girls sing.
That boy plays.
hose boys play.
This, these indicate something near to the speaker.
That, those indicate more distant objects.

79.(i) Many Adjectives are formed from Nouns.
[Noun][Adjective]
[Boy][boyish]
[Fool][foolish]
[Care][careful]
[Play][playful]
[Hope][hopeful]
[Venture][venturesome]
[Trouble][troublesome]
[Shame][shameless]
[Sense][senseless]
[Silk][silken]
[Gold][golden]
[Dirt][dirty]
[Storm][stormy]
[Pardon][pardonable]
[Laugh][laughable]
[Outrage][outrageous]
[Courage][courageous]
[Glory][glorious]
[Envy][envious]
[Man][manly]
[King][kingly]
[Gift][gifted]

(ii) Some Adjectives are formed from Verbs
[Verb]Adjective[]
[Tire][tireless]
[Talk][talkative]
[Cease][ceaseless]
[moveable]

(iii) Some Adjectives are formed from other Adjectives.
[Adjective][Adjective]
[Tragic][tragical]
[Whole][wholesome]
[Three][threefold]
[Black][blackish]
[White][whitish]
[Sick][sickly]

To be continued

[Kelipkelip]

ENGLISH GRAMMAR & COMPOSITION

CHAPTER 10

COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES

80. Read these sentences :
1. Rama's mango is sweet.
2. Hari's maggo is sweeter than Rama's.
3. Govind's mango is the sweetest among all.
In sentence 1, the adjective sweet merely tells us that Rama's mango has thequality of sweetness, without saying how much of this quality it has.
In sentence 2, the adjective sweeter tells us that Hari's mango, compared with Rama's, has more of the quality of sweeteness.
In sentence 3, the adjective sweetest tells us that of all this mangoes Govind's mango has the greatest amount or highest degree of the quality of sweetness.
We thus see that Adjective change in form (sweet, sweeter, sweetest) to show comparison. They are called the three Degrees of Comparison.

The Adjective sweet is said to be in the Positive Degree.
The Adjective sweeter is said to be in the Comparative Degree.
The Adjective sweetest is said to be in the Superlative Degree

The Positive Degree of an Adjective in its simple form. It is used to denote the mere existence of some quality of what we speak about. It is used when no comparison is made.

The Comparative Degree of an Adjectice denotes a higher degree of the quality than the Positive, and is used when two thins (or sets of things) are compared; as,
This boy is stronger than that.
Which of these two pens is the better?
Apples are dearer than oranges.
The Superlative Degree of an Adjective denotes the highest degree of the quality, and is used when more than two things (or sets of things) compared; as
This boy is the strongest in the class.

Note 1 - There is another way in which we can compare things. Instead of saying 'Rama is stronger than Balu', we can say 'Balu is less strong than Rama'. Instead of saying 'Hari is the laziest boy in the class', we can say 'Hari is the least industrious boy in the class'.
Note 2 - The Superlative with most is sometimes used where there is no idea of comparison, but merely a desire to indicate the possession of a quality in a very high degree; as,
This is most unfortunate.
It was a most eloquent speech.
Truly, a most ingenious device.
This usage has been called the Superlative of Eminance or the Absolute Superlative.

To be continued

[Kelipkelip]

ENGLISH GRAMMAR & COMPOSITION

FORMATION OF COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE

81. Most Adjectives of one syllable, and some of more than one, form the Comparative by adding er and the Superlative by adding est to the Positive.

[Positive][Comparative][Superlative]
[Sweet][sweeter][sweetest]
[Small][smaller][smallest]
[Tall][taller][tallest]
[Bold][bolder][boldest]
[clever][cleverer][cleverest]
[Kind][kinder][kindest]
[Young][younger][youngest]
[Great][greater][greatest]

When the Positive ends ine, only r and st are added.
[Brave][braver][bravest]
[Fine][finer][finest]
[White][whiter][whitest]
[Large][larger][largest]
[Able][abler][ablest]
[Noble][nobler][noblest]
[Wise][wiser][wisest]

When the Positive ends in y, preceded by a consonant, the y is changed into i before adding er and est.
[Happy][happier][happiest]
[Easy][easier][easiest]
[Heavy][heavier][heaviest]
[Merry][merrier][merriest]
[Wealthy][wealthier][wealthiest]

When the Positive is a word of one syllable and ends in a single consonant, preceded by a short vowel, this consonant is doubled before adding er and est.
[Red][redder][reddest]
[bigger][biggest]
[Hot][hotter][hottest]
[Thin][thinner][thinnest]
[Sad][sadder][saddest]
[Fat][fatter][fattest]

To be continued

[Kelipkelip]

ENGLISH GRAMMAR & COMPOSITION

82. Adjectives of more than two syllable form the Comparative and Superlative by putting more and most before the Positive.
[Positive][Comparative][Superlative]
[Beautiful][more beautiful][most beautiful]
[Difficult][more difficult][most difficult]
[Industrious][more industrious][most industrious]
[Courageous][more courageous][most courageous]
Two-syllable adjectives ending in ful (eg. useful), less (eg. hopeless), ing (eg. boring), and ed (eg. surprised) and many others ( eg. modern, recent, foolish, famous, certain ) take more and most.
The following take either er and est or more and most :
[polite][simple][feeble][gentle][narrow]
[cruel][common][handsome][pleasant][stupid]
She is politer / more polite than her sister.
He is the politest / most polite of them.

83. The Comparative in er is not used when we compare two qualities in the same person or thing. If we wish to say that the courage of Rama is greater than the courage of Balu, we say:
Rama is braver than Balu.
But if we wish to say that the courage of Rama is greater than his prudence, we must say,
Rama is more brave than prudent.

84. When two objects are compared with each other, the latter term of comparison must exclude the former; as,
Iron is more useful than any other metal.
If we say,
Iron is more useful than any metal.
That is the same thing as saying 'Iron is more useful than iron' since iron is itself a metal.

To be continued

[Kelipkelip]

ENGLISH GRAMMAR & COMPOSITION

IRREGULAR COMPARISON

85. The following Adjectives are compared irregularly, that is, their Comparative and Superlative are not formed from the Positive :
[Positive][Comparative][Superlative]
[Good,well][better][best]
[Bad, evil, ill][worse][worst]
[Little][less, lesser][least]
[Much][more][most (quantity)]
[Many][more][most (number)]
[Late][later, latter][latest, last]
[Old][older, elder][oldest, eldest]
[Far][farther][td][farthest]
[(Nigh)][(nigher)][nighest, next]
[(Fore)][(former)][foremost, first]
[(Fore)][further][furthest]
[(In)][inner][inmost, innermost]
[(Up)][upper][td][upmost, uppermost]
[(Out)][outer, (utter)][utmost, uttermost]
Note: The forms nigh, nigher, nighest, fore and utter are outdated.

86. The double forms of the Comparative and Superlativeof the Adjectives given in 85 are used in different ways.
Later, latter, latest, last - Later and latest refer to time, latter and last refer to position.
He is later than I expected.
I have not heard the latest news.
The latter chapters are lacking in interest.
The last chapter is carelessly written.
Ours is the last house in the street.

Elder, older, eldest, oldest - Elder and eldest are used only on persons, not of animals or things, and are now confined to members of same family. Elder is not used with than following. Older and oldest are used of both persons and things.
John is my elder brother.
Tom is my eldest son.
He is older than his sister.
Rama is the oldest boy in the eleven.
This is the oldest temple in Kolkata.

Farther, further - Both farther and further are used to express distance. Further, not farther, is used to mean "additional".
Kolkata is further / farther from the equator than Colombo.
After this he made no further remarks.
I must have a reply without further delay.

Nearest, next - Nearest means the shortest distance away. Next refers to one of a sequence of things coming one after the other.
Mumbai is the seaport nearest to Europe.
Where is the nearest phone box?
Karim's shop is next to the Post Office.
My uncle lives in the next house.

To be continued

[Kelipkelip]

ENGLISH GRAMMAR & COMPOSITION

87. Certain English Comparatives have lost their comparative meaning and are used as Positive. They cannot be followed by than. These are :
Former, latter, elder, hinder, upper, inner, outer, utter.
Both the tiger and the leopard are cats; the former animal is much larger than the latter.
The inner meaning of this letter is not clear.
The soldiers ran to defend the outer wall.
This man is an utter fool.

88. Certain Comparatives borrowed from Latin have no Positive or Superlative degree. They all end in or, not er. They are twelve in all. Five of them have lost their Comparative meaning, and are used as Positive Adjectives. These are :
Interior, exterior, ulterior, major, minor.
The exterior wall of the house is made of stone; the interior walss are of wood.
His age is a matter of minor importance.
I have no ulterior motive in offering you help.

The other seven are used as Comparative Adjectives but are followed by to instead of than.

89. The comparative degree is generally followed by than but Comparative Adjectives ending in -or are followed by the preposition to; as,
Inferior, superior, prior, anterior, senior, junior.
Hari is inferior to Ram in intelligence.
Rama's intelligence is superior to Hari's.
His marriage was prior to his father's death.
He is junior to all his colleagues.
All his colleagues are senior to him.

90. Adjectives expressing qualities that do not admit of different degree cannot, strictly speaking, be compared; as,
Square, round, perfect, eternal, universal, unique.
Strictly speaking, a thing cannot be more square, more round, more perfect. But we say, for instance,
This is the most perfect specimen I have seen.

INTERCHANGE OF THE DEGREES OF COMPARISON

91. As the following examples show, it is possible to change the Degree of Comparison of an Adjective in a sentence, without changing the meaning of the sentence:
Superlative - Lead is the heaviest of all metals.
Comparative - Lead is heavier than all other metals.
Comparative - Mahabaleshwar is cooler than Panchgani.
Positive - Panchgani is not so cool as Mahabaleshwar.
Positive - He is as wise as Solomon.
Comparative - Solomon was not wiser than he is.
Superlative - Shakuntala is the best drama in Sanskirt.
Comparative - Shakuntala is better than any other drama in Sanskirt.
Positive - No other drama in Sanskirt is so good as Shakuntala.
Superlative - Chennei is one of the biggest of Indian cities.
Comparative - Chennei is bigger than most other Indian cities.
Positive - Very few Indian cities are as big as Chennei.
Positive - Some poets are at least as great as Tennyson.
Comparative - Tennyson is not grater than some other poets.
Comparative - Some poets are not less great than Tennyson.
Superlative - Tennyson is not the greatest of all poets.

To be continued

[Kelipkelip]

ENGLISH GRAMMAR & COMPOSITION

CHAPTER 11

ADJECTIVES USED AS NOUNS

92. Adjectives are often used as Nouns.
(1) As Plural Nouns denoting a class of persons; as,
The cautious (=cautiouc persons) are not always cowards.
The rich (=rich people) know not how the poor (= poor people) live.
The wicked (=wicked people) flee when no man purseth, but the righteous (=righteous people) are bold as a lion.
Blessed are the meek.

(2) As Singular Nouns denoting some abstract quality; as,
The future (=futurity) is unknown to us.
He is a lover of the beautiful (=beauty in general)

(3) Some Adjectives actually become Nouns; and are hence used in both numbers:
(a) Those derived from Proper Nouns; as, Australians, Canadians, Italians
(b) Some denoting persons; as, juniors, seniors, mortals, inferiors, nobles, criminals, savages, elders, minors.
(c) A few denoting things generally; as, secrets, totals, liquids, solids, valuables.
[Some adjectives are used as Nouns only in the plural; as sweets, bitters, valuables, eatables.

(4) In certain phrases; as,
In general, in future, in short, in secret, before long, at present, for good, at best, through thick, for better or for worse, in black and white, right or wrong, from bad to worse, the long and short.
In future I shall charge you for medical advice.
In short, we know nothing.
The negotiations were carried on in secret.
I shall see you before long.
Before long, he will be appointed to a higher post.
At present, he is in pecuniary difficulties.
I do not want any more at present.
He has left India for good.
We can't arrive before Saturday at best.
It must be said to his credit that he stood by his friend through thick or thin.
I must have your terms down in black and wjite.
Right or wrong, my country.
I am afraid the young man is going from bad to worse.
The long and short of it is that I distrust you.


To be continued

[Kelipkelip]

ENGLISH GRAMMAR & COMPOSITION

NOUNS USED AS ADJECTIVES

93. The use of Nouns is very common in English; as,
I met a little cottage girl.
He is always playing computer games.

CHAPTER 12

POSITION OF ADJECTIVES

94. A single Adjective used attributively is generally placed immediately before the noun; as,
King Francis was a hearty king, and loved a royal sport.
Where are you going, my pretty maid, with your rosy cheeks and golden hair?
O Captain! my Captain! our fearful trip is done.

Observe the difference in meaning between:
(i) a great noblemen's son, and
(ii) a noblrman's great son.

95. In poetry, however, the Adjective is frequently placed after the nouns; as,
Children dear, was it yesterday?
We heard the sweet bells over the bay.
O man with sisters dear!

96. When several Adjectives are attached to one noun they are generally placed after it for emphasis; as,
There dwelt a miller and bold.
The King, fearless and resolute, at once advanced.
Franklin had a great genius, original, sagacious, and inventive.

97. When some word or phrase is joined to the Adjective to explain its meaning, the Adjective is placed after its noun; as,
He was a man fertile in resource.
A Sikh, taller than any of his comrades, rushed forward.

98. In certain phrases the Adjective always comes after the noun; as,
Heir apparent, time immemorial, lord paramount, viceroy elect, letters patent, knights temporal, notary public, body politic, God Almighty.

CHAPTER 13

THE CORRECT USE OF SOME ADJECTIVES[/color]

99. Some, any - To express quantity or degree some is used normally in affirmative sentence, any in negative or interrogative sentences.
I will buy some mangoes.
I will not buy any mangoes.
Have you bought any mangoes.

But any can be used after if in affirmative sentences.
If you need any money I will help you.

Some is used in questions which are really offers / requests or which expect the answer "yes".
Will you have some ice-cream? (Offer)
Could you lend me some money? (Request)
Did you buy some clothes? (= I expect you did.)

100. Each, every - Each and every are similar in meaning, but every is a stronger word than each; it means, 'each without exception'. Each is used in speaking of two or more things, every is used only in speaking of more than two. each directs attention to the individuals forming any group, every to the total group. Each is used only when the number in the group is limited and definite; every when the number is indefinite.
Every seat was taken.
Five boys were seated on each bench.
Each one of these chairs is broken.
Leap year falls in every fourth year.
He came to see us every three days [i.e once in every period of three days].
It rained every day during my holidays.
I was away ten days and it rained each day.

101. Little, a little, the little - Note carefully the use of -
(1) little (2) a little (3) the little
Little = not much (i.e. hardly any). Thus, the adjective little has a negative meaning.
There is little hope of his recovery, ie. he is not likely to recover.
He showed little concern for his nephew.
He has little influence with his old followers.
He showed little mercy to the vanquished.
He has little appreciation of good poetry.

A little = some though not much. 'A little' has a positive meaning.
There is a little hope of his recovery, ie. he may posibbly recover.
A little tact would have saved the situation.
A little knowledge is a dangerous thing.

The little = not much, but all there is.
The little information ha had was quite reliable.
The little knowledge of carpentary that he possessed stood him in good stead.
[The sentence means = The knowledge of carpentary was not much, but all that knowledge stood him in good stead.]

To be continued

[Kelipkelip]

ENGLISH GRAMMAR & COMPOSITION

102. Few, a few, the few - Note carefully the use of -
(1) few (2) a few (3) the few

Few = not many, hardly any, 'Few' has a negative meaning.
Few persons can keep a secret.
Few people are so hopeless as drunkards.
Few towns in India have public libraries.
Few works of reference are so valuable as the Eccyclopaedia Britannic.
Few men are free from faults.
Few men reach the age of one hundred years.
Few Parsees write Gujarati correctly.

A few = some. 'A few' has a positive meaning, and is opposed to 'none'.
A few words spoken in earnest will convince him.
A few Parsees write Gujarati correctly.

The few = not many, but all there are.
The few remarks that he made were very suggestive.
[The sentence means - The remarks that he made were not many; but all those remarks were very suggestive.]
The few friends he has are all very poor.
The few clothes they had were all tattered and torn.

CHAPTER 14

ARTICLES

103. The Adjectives a or an and the are usually called Articles. They are really Demonstrative Adjectives.

104. There are two Articles - a (or an) and the.

105. A or an is called the Indefinite Article, because it usually leaves indefinite the person or thing spoken of; as,
A doctor; that is, any doctor.

106. The is called the Definite Article, because it normally points out some particular person or thing; as,
He saw the doctor; meaning some particular doctor.
The indefinite article is used before singular countable nouns, E.g A book, an orange, a girl.
The definite article is used before singular countable nouns, plural countable nouns and uncountable nouns, eg.
The book, the books, the milk.

A OR AN

107. The choice between a and an is determined by sound. Before a word beginning with a vowel an is used; as
An ass, an enemy, an inkstand, an orange, an umbrella, an hour, an honest man, an heir.
It will be noticed that the words hour, honest, heir begin with a vowel sound, as the initial consonant h
is not pronounched.

108. Before a word beginning with a consonant sound a is used; as
A boy, a reinder, a woman, a yard, a horse, a hole.
also a university, a union, a European, a ewe, a unicorn, a useful article.
because these words (university, union etc) begin with a consonant that of yu. Similarly we say,
A one-rupee note, such a one, a one-eyed man
because one begins with the consonant of w.

109 Some native speakers use an before words beginning with h if the first syllable is not stressed.
An hotel (More common : a hotel)
an historical novel (More common : a histrorical novel).

To be continued

[Kelipkelip]

ENGLISH GRAMMAR & COMPOSITION

USE OF THE DEFINITE ARTICLE

110. The Definite Article the is used -
(1) When we talk about a particular person or thing, or one already referred to (that is, when it is clear from the context which one we mean(; as,
The book you want is out of print. (Which book? The one you want.)
Let's go to the park. (= the park in this town.)
The girl cried. (the girl already talked about.)

(2) When a singular noun is meant to represent a whole class; as,
The cow is a useful animal.
[Or we may say, "Cows are useful animals."]
The horse is a noble animal.
The cat loves comfort.
The rose is the sweetest of all flowers.
The banyan is a kind of a fig tree.
[Do not say, "a kind of a fig tree". This is a common error.]
The two nouns man and woman can be used in a general sense without either article.
Man is the only animal that uses fire.
Woman is man's mate.
But in present-day English a man and a woman (or men and women) are more usual.
A woman is more sensitive than a man.

(3) Before some proper names, viz, these kinds of place-names :
(a) oceans and seas eg. the Pacific, the Black Sea.
(b) rivers eg. the Gangga, the Nile.
(c) canals eg. the Suez Canal.
(d) deserts eg. the Sahara.
(e) groups of islands eg. the West Indies.
(f) mountain-ranges eg. the Himalayas, the Alps.
(g) a few names of countries, which include words like republic and kingdom (eg. the Irish Republic, the United Kingdom) also; the Ukraine, the Netherlands (and its seat of government the Hague).

(4) Before the names of certain books; as,
the Vedas, the Puranas, the Lliad, the Ramayana.

But we say -
Homer's Lliad, Valmiki's Ramayana.

(5) Before names of things unique of their kind; as,
The sun, the sky, the ocean, the sea, the earth.

Note - Sometimes the is placed before a Common noun to give it the meaning of an Abstract noun; as,
At last the warrior (the warlike or martial spirit) in him throughly aroused.

(6) Before a Proper Noun when it is qualified by an adjective or a defining adjectivel clause; as,
The great Ceaser : the immortal Shakespeare
The Mr. Roy whom you met last night is my uncle.

(7) With Superlatives; as,
The darkest cloud has a silver lining.
This is the best book of elementary chemistry.

(8) With ordinals; as,
He was the first man to arrive.
The ninth chapter of the book is very interesting.

(9) Before musical instruments; as,
He can play the flute.

(10) Before an adjective when the noun is understood; as,
The poor are always with us.

(11) Before a noun (with emphasis) to give the force of a Superlative; as,
The Verb is the word (=chief word) in a sentence.

(12) As an Adverb with Comparatives; as,
The more the merrier.
(=by how much more, by so much the merrier.)
The more they get, the more they want.

To be continued

[Kelipkelip]

ENGLISH GRAMMAR & COMPOSITION

USE OF THE INDEFINITE ARTICLE

111. The Indefinite Article is used :
(1) In its original sense of one; as,
Twelve inches make a foot.
Not a word was said.
A word to the wise is sufficient.
A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush.

(2) In the vague sense of a certain; as,
A Kishore Kumar (= a certain person named Kishore Kumar) is suspected by the police.
One evening a beggar came to my door.

(3) In the sense of an, to single out an individual as the representative of a class; as,
A pupil should obey his teacher.
A cow is a useful animal.

(4) To make a common noun of a proper noun; as,
A Daniel come to judgement! (A Daniel = a very wise man).

OMISSION OF THE ARTICLE

112. The Article is omitted :
(1) Befores names of substances and abstract nouns (ie. uncountable nouns) used in a general sense; as,
Sugar is bad for your teeth.
Gold is a precious metal
Wisdom is the gift of heaven.
Honesty is the best policy.
Virtue is its own reward.

Note - Uncountable nouns take the when used in a particular sense (especially when qualified by an adjective or adjectival phrase or clause); as,
Would you pass me the sugar? (= the sugar on the table)
The wisdom of Solomon is great.
I can't forget the kindness with which he treated me.

(2) Before plural countable nouns used in general sense; as,
Children like chocolates.
Computers are used in manu offices.
Note that such nouns take the when used with a particular meaning; as,
Where are the children? (= our children)

(3) Before most proper nouns (except those referred to earlier), namely, names of people (eg. Gapal, Rahim), names of continents, countries, cities. etc. (eg. Europe, Pakistan, Nagpur), names of individual mountains (eg. Mount Everest), individual islands, lakes, hills, etc.

(4) Before names of meals (used in a general sense); as,
What time do you have lunch?
Dinner is ready.

Note: We use a when there is an adjective before breakfast, lunch, dinner, etc. We use the when we specify.
I had a late lunch today.
The dinner we had at the Tourist Hotel was very nice.

(5) Before languages; as,
We are studying English.
They speak Punjabi at home.

(6) Before school, college, bed, table, hospital, market, prison when these places are visited or used for their primary purpose; as,
I learnt French at school.
We go to college every day.
He stays in bed till nine every morning.
My uncle is still in hospital.
Note - The is used with these words when we refer to them as a definite place, building or object rather than to the normal activity that goes on there; as,
The school is very near my home.
Imet him at the market.
The bed is broken.
I went to the hospital to see my uncle.

(7) Before names of relations, like father, mother, aunt, uncle, and also cook and nurse, meaning 'our cook', 'our nurse', as,
Father has returned.
Aunt wants you to see her.
Cook has given notice.

(8) Before predicative nouns denoting a unique position, ie. position that normally held at one time by one person only; as,
He was elected chairman of the Board.
Mr. Banerji became Principal of the college in 1995.

(9) In certain phrases consisting of a transitive verb followed by its object; as,
to catch fire, to take breath, to give battle, to cast anchor, to send word, to give ear, to lay seige, to set sail, to lose heart, to set foot, to leave home, to strike root, to take offence.

(10) In certain phrases consisting of a preposition folowed by its object; as,
at home, in hand, in debt, by day, by night, at daybreak, at sunrise, at noon, at sunset, at night, at anchor, at sight, on demand, at interest, on earth, by land, by water, by river, by train, by steamer, by name, on horseback, on foot, on deck, in jest, at dinner, at ease, under ground, above ground.

To be continued

[Kelipkelip]

ENGLISH GRAMMAR & COMPOSITION

REPETITION OF THE ARTICLE

113. If we say :
I have a black and white dog.
I mean a dog that is partly black and partly white.
But if I say :
I have a black and a white dog.
I mean two dogs, one black and the other white.

Hence when two or more adjectives qualify the same nouns, the Article is used before the first adjective only, but when they qualify different nouns, expressed or understood, the Article is normally used before each adjective.

114. Compare :
1. The Secretary and Treasurer is absent.
2. The Secretary and the Treasurer are absent.
The first sentence clearly indicates the posts of Secretary and Treasurer are held by one person.
The repetition of the article in the second sentence indicates that the two posts are held by two different persons.

Hence we see that when two or more connected nouns refer to the same person or thing, the Article is ordinarily used before the first only; but when two or more connected nouns refer to different persons or things; the Article is used before each.

Also examine the following sentences :
Sir Surendranath was a great orator and statesman.

115. We may either say ;
The third and the forth chapter.
[Or] The third and fourth chapters.

116. In expressing a comparison, if two nouns refer to the same person or thing, the Article is used before the first noun only; as,
He is better mechanic than clerk.
He is better poet than novelist.
He is better thinker than debater.
He would make a better engineer than lawyer.

But if they refer to different persons or things, the Article must be used with each noun; as,
He is a better mechanic than a clerk (would make).
He would make a better statesman than a philosopher (would make).

CHAPTER 15

PERSONAL PRONOUNS

117. We may say :
Hari is absent, because Hari is ill.
But it is better to avoid the repetition of the Noun Hari, and say -
Hari is absent, because he is ill.
A word that is thus used instead of a noun is called a Pronoun [Pronoun means for a noun.
Def. - A Pronoun is a word used instead of a Noun.

118. Read the following sentences :
I am young.
You are young.
He (she, it) is young.
We are young.
They are young.
I, we, you, he (she, it), they are called Personal Pronouns because they stand for the three persons.
(i) the person speaking
(ii) the person spoken to
(iii) the person spoken of
The Pronouns I and we, which denote the person or persons speaking, are said to be Personal Pronouns of the First Person.
The Pronoun you , which denotes the person or persons spoken to, is said to be a Personal Pronoun of the Second Person.
You is used both in the singular and plural.
The pronouns he (she) and they, which denote the person or persons spoken of, are said to be Personal Pronouns of the Third Person. It, although it denotes the thing spoken of, is also called a Personal Pronoun of the Third Person. [The Personal Pronouns of the Third Person are, strictly speaking, Demonstrative Pronouns.]

To be continued